Associate Professor | Department of History
Contact (Off.): 9810914731
Email Address : rimjhim[dot]sharma[at]pgdav[dot]du[dot]ac[dot]in
Ancient Indian History
I am working as an Associate Professor in the Department of History of P.G.D.A.V College, Delhi University. After completing Masters from Jawahar Lal Nehru University in History with specialization in Ancient Indian History, I pursued Doctorate from Jamia Millia Islamia. The topic of my research was “Copper Technology in Chotanagpur Region-An Ethnoarchaeological Study”. I was also awarded JRF from ICHR for pursuing my Doctorate degree. My interest areas cover Environmental History, Metal Technology and Archaeology. I have been part of various administrative committees involved in paper-setting, syllabus revision and syllabus making for undergraduate courses in Delhi University. I have few publications under my name in refereed, peer reviewed and UGC CARE Listed National Journals and have also co-authored two Books, titled ‘A Study in Early India: From Beginning of Culture to Circa 300 BCE’ and ‘Early India: A Historical Study (Up to c. 300 AD)’, on Early India with Book Age Publication for the Undergraduate students of Delhi University. I have also presented papers in many International Conferences and have been resource person to different Institutions like Amity University, Annamalai University and Delhi University. Alongwith academic engagements, I have also greatly contributed to the corporate life of the College through being part of various Committees, by organising SPIC MACAY Programmes, and many cultural and academic activities under Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav in the capacity of Nodal Officer- Incharge of the College. I am presently the Convener of Internal Complaints Committee of the College.
HISTORY
1. Convener, Board of Examiners for ‘Social Formations and Cultural Patterns of the Ancient and Medieval World’, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023.
2. Member, Board of Examiners for ‘Social Formations and Cultural Patterns of the Ancient and Medieval World’, 2016-18 and Issues in the World History.
3. Member, Courses Revision Committee for ‘Social Formations and Cultural Patterns of the Ancient and Medieval World’ and ‘Issues in Contemporary World’.
4. Member, Courses Framework Committee for ‘Social Formations and Cultural Patterns of the Ancient and Medieval World’, NEP.
5. Convener, Courses Framework Committee for ‘Ancient Societies’, NEP.
6. Liaison Officer (OBC) appointment in P.G.D.A.V. College (2017-2019).
7. Nodal Officer-In-Charge for “Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav-75 Years of India’s Independence” (2021-23).
8. Member of Staff Association Executive
9. Member SPIC MACAY PGDAV Chapter
10. Member of various Staff Council Committees
11. Convener, OBC Cell (2021-23)
12. Convener, Internal Complaints Committee
13. Visited as Judge to a Competition in St. Paul's School, New Delhi
Copper is the first metal to be widely used by human being for its daily needs. The utility of the metal can be understood from the fact that the first metal age was marked by the Chalcolithic Age. This fact is enough to generate interest among people to know all about its discovery, mining, smelting, production etc. along with the people involved with the working of the copper metal. Though it is difficult to tell how exactly Chalcolithic people got to know about this metal but it definitely brought a revolution in the society due to variety in its utility. People invented various artifacts according to their needs and this gradually pushed them to improve their technology of production. My research work is to know about different production technologies being followed in the ancient times by surveying the kind of technology followed in the present times by the copper workers in the Chotanagpur plateau as this Region is rich in copper ores and recently many sites with copper artifacts have been discovered while archaeological excavations.
The first chapter is called ‘Introduction’. It deals with the aims and objectives along with the methodology of my research work. The work involves a detailed study of the copper workers and their technological knowledge. The aim is to make a wholesome study about the various aspects of their life. The metal ‘Copper’ has a marked time period for its discovery in human History which we refer to as the ‘Chalcolithic Period.’ The time period differs in different parts of the country but for Chotanagpur Region along with its adjacent areas including Gangetic valley it goes back to 2nd millennium BC approximately. My aim also has been to check how far back I can go to trace the evidences of copper production. The examples have been taken even from the 12th - 13th century AD due to rarity of evidences as the Region has still not been excavated extensively neither the artifacts have been analyzed completely.
The objective is also to try and do a comparative study between ancient copper technological processes and the modern technical inputs by the communities involved in it. A brief study has been made of the process involved in the copper industry in the present times. Continuity or break in the technical process would be traced according to the emerging patterns from the survey. The changing typology of the artifacts over the period according to the needs of people has been taken into account. Due to more advanced technologies coming in the market there are some of the traditional copper-workers who have been forced to shift profession for their survival. They have also been taken into account to get a larger view of their community.
The methodology applied to my research is ethnographic study corroborated by archaeological artifacts- field work specifically community study, procurement of raw material, sampling of artifacts, recording of the typology of artifacts, etc. Comparison between few communities or tribal groups would be done with few parallels in the middle and lower Gangetic Plain. Gender specifications in the production or division of labour based on gender has not been taken into account in the previous works. So this has been an area of focus. Progress and development in the process of copper manufacturing and in their profession was studied to understand the uniformity or diversity. Sketching and photography has been another way of representing my findings. Meeting copper workers was done on personal level including some of their interviews relevant to the topic. The geo-morphological and geological study of the Chotanagpur region was important to deal with the topic. It has helped me to know about the conditions people need for copper production. Copper belt area has been easier to locate along with the alloying metals by knowing the geological formations in the Region. Extraction, production, degree of specialization etc. has also been taken up.
Sources to be consulted are- literary and archaeological. In literary sources I have looked at the Vedic texts- Rigveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Also references have been taken from Manusmriti, Brahmanas, Arthasastra, Samhitas and few other literary texts. Archaeological sources constitute the findings from Chotanagpur Region during excavation of various sites.
To trace the historical evolution of this region as a social, cultural and political entity a geographical approach to the problem is important. It is surrounded by the Ganga-plain in the north and east and by coastal low land in the south-east. In the south, it is continuous with the hilly tracts of Orissa and in the west, with the hilly tracts of the M.P which are extended up to the Aravallis in Rajasthan. The Rig-Veda mentions a territory called ‘Kikata’ which is interpreted as a synonym for Magadha. Scant reference to this part of the territory in the Vedic literature is perhaps due to the fact that eastern India, particularly the Middle Ganga Plain was the stronghold of the Asura people. In the Puranic literature mention has been made of ‘Karush’ and ‘Pundras’ as states in South Bihar, now what is Jharkhand.
This Region has grown in isolation for long. It still envelopes informations which might help historians and archaeologists to construct continuity in history of the Region. Also this might help anthropologists to understand the life of tribal community much better. The history of Chotanagpur Plateau is also influenced by the geographical attributes of the Region. The geomorphological construct of any region is important to know about the people and their lifestyle. Hence we have looked into the Geomorphology of Chotanagpur Region also. The forest areas of Chotanagpur form two elongated belts, one in north and the other in the south. The two belts are separated, except in the west, by the Ranchi plateau which is mostly denuded of forest. The Rajmahal forest forming an isolated patch is separated from the main forest area by the Deoghar ‘erosional depression’ and the Lower Damodar Basin. Chotanagpur Plateau constitutes almost whole of Jharkhand state which lies to the north-east of Deccan Plateau. The geographical spread of Chotanagpur Plateau extends to the eastern part of Chhattisgarh state and Purulia district of West Bengal state. The Chotanagpur Plateau represents the north-eastern projection of the Indian peninsula. The plateau is composed mainly of Gondwana rocks with patches of Archaean granite and gneisses and Deccan lavas.
The rivers flowing through the Region are rain fed. Some of the important rivers which help the State commercially are Swarnarekha, Damodar, Son, Koel etc. This is a plateau region of the state characterized by “heavy rainfall and considerable humidity”. The plateau lies within the tropical zone. The Pats are rainier, cloudier, cooler in summer and colder in winter than the Ranchi plateau. With about 80 inches of normal annual rainfall this is the rainiest tract of Chotanagpur. The rainfall and rock formations have also led to the kind of soil formations Chotanagpur Plateau has. The Region is characterized by two common topographic features - dons (lowland) and tanrs (upland). The uplands are capped with residual soils derived from the subjacent rocks. The lowlands consist of drift-soils which are made of transported materials or sediments. There are four principal types of soils- (1) red soil, (2) black clayey soil or regur, (3) lateritic soil and (4) loose sandy soil.
Chotanagpur constitutes one of the most heavily wooded tracts of India. The name Jharkhand as the Plateau is popularly known, suggests that the whole of Chotanagpur at one time was a dense forest. Forest of Chotanagpur may be divided into: (i) moist deciduous and (ii) dry deciduous. The forest of southern Palamau, southern Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Singhbhum and the Rajmahal Hills fall within the moist category also called the monsoon forest. In the dry deciduous belt the vegetation is of semi-xerophytic type. Only a small area falls within the dry deciduous belt, which includes almost whole of the districts of Palamau and parts of the districts of Hazaribagh and Santhal Parganas. Vegetation consists of trees and scrubs that have stunted growth.
It is important now to know about the people residing in the copper and other mineral producing areas. It is the people who carry all kinds of art forms with themselves. They invent and discover things according to their needs in relation to the means provided by their environment. Thus, knowing their profession, lifestyle, beliefs and traditions was valuable for my work to connect to their technological advancement. This I have followed up in the next chapter- ‘Ethnic Groups in Copper Producing Areas’. The purpose of the chapter was to follow the different ethnic groups residing and practicing their respective profession in the Chotanagpur Plateau. The chapter has limited itself to some important groups. They are Santhals, Oraons, Mundas, Ho and Kharias who have covered a vast area of the plateau. I have looked into their economy, belief and traditions, festivals, polity, society and culture. But first I have taken into account the areas which have been identified for the production of copper and its alloying metals.
The Singhbhum belt is full of old workings and so are a few Hazaribagh localities, notably Baragunda, Golgo and Hesatu. Beginning with Duarpuram, the Singhbhum old workings first cover the area between the village of Jaypur and Itihassa and the area to the north-west of Roladih. In the Kharsawan action Galudih and Rajdih are noteworthy, and here there are shafts dug in rocks as also in what are now agricultural fields. The Saraikela workings include those at Sini, Dugni and Tamadungri. Around Jamshedpur, the old workings are clustered around Ramchandrapahar and in this area there are four lines of old workings mostly in the form of inclines and shallow excavations. In the same area is the old working site of Nadup. At Rajdoha further east there are large shafts on top of the ridges. In the Rakha mines area, there are a number of old workings and slag heaps. In the Musaboni mines the old workings, reputedly the largest in this belt, are said to exist throughout the length of the lodes. In Hazaribagh, the Baragunda section is singularly rich in old workings.
The Singhbhum district of Jharkhand has a continuation of its rich copper resource into the State of Orissa. Alloying metals like tin and zinc are also found in the Region. Copper, lead, tin and zinc occur together at 5 localities in Bhagalpur, 12 localities in Hazaribagh, 1 locality in Munger, 3 in Palamau and 8 localities in Santhal Parganas, Ranchi districts and at Amjhore in Shahabad in Gaya districts, Golgo in Hazaribagh. Mention has also been made of alloys of copper- brass, bronze and muntz metal.
The informations contained in this chapter are important to frame an ethnographical account of the copper workers and their relation with other communities involved in different profession. How they interact with each other and what kind of help these copper workers get from them is important to build up the social network of the Region. The ethnic communities mentioned in the chapter and rest of the other groups, all constitute a certain social network in the Region. The informations have helped in building the connectivity in the society.
The third chapter- ‘Processes of Copper Production: An Ethnographic Profile’ has dealt with all these issues along with a detailed account of the technological processes followed during the production of copper artifacts. I have tried to construct an ethnographic profile of the copper workers residing in the village called Jaria in Khunti town of the Ranchi district. References have also been made to the Pallakot or Palkot village being its counterpart in copper production. The informations included in this chapter have been collected personally by me while visiting the villages. A detailed study of procurement of ore, production including their equipments, smelting process, and casting, forging, burnishing and etching has been done in this part of the thesis. Marketing network, consumer demands, the emerging social pattern and few specialized community of copper workers have been taken into account. The specialized communities like Dhokra, Scrap metal workers and Part- time metal workers have been discussed in details. Mention of two important technological processes- Lost wax method and Hammering has been done in details as these two are still the most widely and commonly practiced technological processes of making copper artifacts.
My next chapter called ‘An Ethno-Archaeological Study of Copper Technology’, attempts to find a correlation between the present techniques with the techniques which might have been followed in the ancient period. The references have been taken from the excavated materials found in the Region. In this part of the work I have tried to find connectivity between the technological processes followed by the copper workers with the processes which might have been followed in ancient times. Examples have been taken of the artifacts which have been analyzed to find out how they would have been made, what were the various types of artifacts which were being made in that period and how much similarity they found in the present times. During the Chalcolithic period, the copper objects were manufactured by casting and subsequent forging practices. The objects mostly found are bangles, beads, ear-rings, finger rings, fish-hooks etc. Examples have also been taken from the adjacent areas to find continuity if there any was. Also there are mentions of various other copper producing techniques followed in other parts of the country. This has enlightened me with different technologies being used outside my research area.
Attempts have been made to trace continuity or break in the settlement pattern from Palaeolithic times to Chalcolithic time in the Region. The habitation sites go back to the lower Palaeolithic age with some sites showing the evidence of continuous occupation while others were being abandoned after single settlement. For example the villages of Gopalpur, Jagannathpur, Tamadungri etc along Subarnarekha and its tributary in Singhbhum district have yielded a large number of early and middle Stone Age tools in situ in gravels overlain by the clay. The Site of Ghatshila is one which in present times too is occupied with habitation and has the Copper Factory in function. Ghatshila, Chandil and Chakulia in district Singhbhum, Telmocha near Chas in district Dhanbad and Lotapahar near Chakradharpur supplied a large number of microlithic tools. Of these, Lotapahar, Chandil, Ghatshila and Chakulia have already been known for their neoliths. The site of Sonahatu has been explored by Sri B. K. Sharan who found a few microliths and dolmens. These sites have been taken in particular for example as they lie around my village of survey and are important as they are in copper belt of the Region and have yielded significant evidences of artifacts and habitation. Thus, it appears that the ancient people under review settled on the river bank due to its arable land including wild game and similarly Chalcolithic people continued to settle in the region due to discovery of copper ore deposits. The choice was dictated by agricultural as well as industrial needs.
Today also very similar kind of pattern emerges when I surveyed these villages involved in copper working. The village of my survey called ‘Jaria’ is located in the vicinity of River Karo. The village is approximately 10kms from the river. Copper is not found in its vicinity but they buy from the market in Sambalpur in Orissa state which is the nearest source of the ore as well as scrap metal. They also buy scrap metal from the Thathera community who collect it from the villages and towns covering states of Bengal, M.P and Orissa. This village is surrounded by a few Stone Age sites as well as Chalcolithic sites like Sonahatu, Chandil, Basia Thana etc which have yielded evidences of microliths and copper artifacts as mentioned in the previous chapters. Thus the region goes back to ancient times and has continued to survive through times with some changes following due to the changing needs and demands of the people and ecology.
A typological comparison has been made to find out the changes and similarity existing since ancient times. I have divided the copper artifacts into four categories- (1) Implements which constitute artifacts like flat axe, axe ingots, bar-celt ingots and double-edged axe; (2) Household objects like lotas, plates, glasses, bowls and kalsis; (3) Religious Items such as idols of gods and goddesses, ghant, jhal and other ceremonial vessels; and (4) Miscellaneous objects like ornaments, occupational and unspecified artifacts, tamra-patra and pure copper items.
The research was begun with the question of different communities involved in copper working probably using different techniques. In my ‘Conclusion’ I have mentioned that as work progressed with the surveys I discovered that copper metal has become rare in the Region in the present times and this has led a shift in nature of profession of metal-working community to agriculture and other professions. Also due to mining through a long stretch of time the ores have gone so deep down that it is neither possible nor economical for the government or community involved, to procure it easily. Hence, it has to be brought from the mines which have been discovered in more recent times in the adjoining areas. Since the metal has become rare so its production has also reduced. When the metal was found in large amount this must have been a basic industry where a large number of communities would have been involved at various stages of copper production - mining and its control, extraction, transportation, bulk buyers, artists, marketers and consumers.
With the evidences from the excavated sites we get to know that the mining sites and residence sites were different. Today also the regions around the existing mines do not have production sites. Probably, the ore might have been transported and sold to the bulk buyers or it might be possible that this group or community did not exist and the copper workers directly bought the metal ore from the owner of the mine. Since this network is not very clear from any text of earlier times we have to trace it from the type of network existing in the present times.
The different community involved in copper working process inspite of being placed on any social pedestal must have had coordination among themselves. It is possible that one community procured the metal from the mining site while the other bought and sold them to the copper workers directly or indirectly through retail shopkeepers. These major groups might have been connected with yet minor groups like transporters, intermediaries, bulk buyers like State organization involved with metal etc. The specialized communities though having higher status in the society could not have been able to work independently which is true in present times too. Also the villages specialized in a particular type of copper and its alloyed artifact making are economically better off than the itineraries and part time metal workers even in present times.
More often than not, social needs (as arising from geographic, climatic or living conditions) have been the primary impetus for technological progress in society. But technological progress also requires a favourable social milieu. A foundation of scientific knowledge, rational thinking and practical experimentation can be essential to the process of making technological discoveries although the application of already known technologies can occur more easily. Hence we observe the continuation of most of the technical equipments used during ancient times. They have been practically continued to serve the same purposes for which they were used in earlier times. But, though the basic structure and function remain the same there have been minor changes accordingly to suit the craftsmen over the time. These changes have been brought up by the artists themselves. For example there is continuity in the type of furnaces used in copper production process but the metal of equipments changed from bronze to iron though the shape and usage remains the same. Iron is found in abundance in the Region and also its property of being a harder metal than bronze attracted the artisans towards it. According to their technological specialization they induced changes to suit their working. These changes might have been different in different regions and various artist communities too, though the basic structure remains the same. For example, kilns for smelting copper ingots and casting tools were in existence as were metal tools such as curved or circular saws, pierced needles and most significantly, bronze drills with twisted grooves. The drill enabled the production of items with unparalleled precision for the times and could be regarded as an ancient precursor of the modern machine tool. Similarly in Jaria village the copper workers have combined cutter (cheni) and filer (Rethi) into single equipment instead of using it separately. They said that using it separately hampered the speed of finishing the article. They have also invented the procedure to sharpen their filer and cutter out of a wooden log. They have made a depression in a log of approximately 60cm in which sand is spread which helps in sharpening the filer. Thus we can say that change is natural with time, space and social needs.
Although Indian artisans could produce goods of exceptional quality, much of Indian manufacturing (as was the case in much of the world) was highly labour intensive. Although Indian artisans used a variety of tools and implements in facilitating their manufactures, there was insufficient investment in augmenting and expanding the range of available labour-saving tools. When we analyze the technological process of artefact making in the Jaria village we get a similar view about the Copper production too. The technique involved all the family members including women and children. Heavy works as well as the technical part of the production were handled by male member while non-technical works like arranging for wood, charcoal, water etc were done by women and children. The tools also have hardly been modernized except some minor changes keeping the basic structure intact as mentioned earlier in this Chapter. Though they are facing a tough competition with the modern machines yet they are keeping up with their age-old technology and implements.
The various copper worker communities are specialized in different typologies of artifacts for example one family is specialized in single type of article i.e. if a family makes copper plates the whole family is involved in it and they do not make other products. But their relatives might be specialized in making some other articles. The whole village is thus involved in a similar kind of artefact making like the Jaria village, which is specialized in making of copper plates of different shapes and sizes.
Copper technology is a traditional craft and the Copper-workers are trying to save this tradition against all kinds of adverse conditions like defunct state of all the mining sites around their village, due to which they have to move to other states for raw material. Also producing artifacts directly from copper-ore has almost become extinct. The reason is decrease in the amount of metal available now in its ore form and hence its procurement becoming extremely costly. Increased interference of local police and exploitation by the Mahajans is yet another reason of workers not getting their fare share of remuneration to feed their family and invest in improving the production techniques or implements. Thus the government should be more sensitive towards these craftsmen and protect extinction of this ancient technology through incentives and proper monitoring of the whole social network involved at different steps of the production. Government should also provide them facilities for proper promotion and marketing of their products as it was done in ancient times. Metal is basic to the development of the Civilization and it was not for nothing that Kautilya talks of State control of mines and metal production in general. Hence today also it is government’s responsibility to not only control copper mines but artefact making too so that our ancient art is not extinct due to negligence.
With the coming of machines and modern techniques the tradition is definitely facing a competition. Earlier the artists got patronage from rich people due to which their condition in the society was far better than what it is today. In present times machine made objects are more preferred due to its fine finishing and cheaper rates. Today these artisans are facing tough time marketing their products because most of the time they do not even get their production price due to which it becomes difficult for them to buy raw materials for further production. Thus most of them spend their lives in abject poverty. Since copper metal has become a rare metal due to exploitation through Ages, its cost has increased. Also all the mines are state controlled hence procuring the ore by an individual has become pricey and difficult. So they have to survive on the scrap metal most of the time.
Overall after examining all the different kinds of technological processes followed by the copper workers all over the country and in Chotanagpur Region in specific in the present times inference can be made that there has been no sharp break in the technique. This comparison does not involve the machine made goods because concentration has been put on the technology followed by the traditional copper workers. The fundamentals of the copper workers are same even today. They still work on the similar Principle of copper producing which was being followed in ancient times except few changes in physical appearance of the equipments and the artifacts. After looking at the archaeological finds from the Region we can assert that copper workers in the ancient times were as specialized and advanced in their technological knowledge as their counterparts in the present times. Though it is a long stretch of time from ancient times to the present times yet continuity in the technique is very much evident at every stage of the production process. Today copper production has been confined more to working with scrap metal due to reducing amount of copper while in earlier times people worked more with the ores of copper. Hence in earlier times workers must have been more efficient in ore separating technique than what the workers are today because they basically buy copper separated from their ores and melt them to produce a new artefact. Thus the changes are basically non-technical and circumstantial and not fundamental.
1. Paper presented in an International Hybrid Conference on “Animals in the History of South Asia”, organized by Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, with Paper titled ‘Animal Representations in Ancient Indian Culture and Traditions’ on 2nd & 3rd 2023.
2. Presented paper in One Day International Conference Themed, “Walking with River Sarasvati-Recent Historical, Cultural and Scientific Findings”, organized by the Department of History, Panjab University in collaboration with The Haryana Sarasvati Heritage Development Board. Topic of presentation was ‘Sacred Saraswati-The River in Indian Culture’.
3. Paper accepted for presentation in International Conference IOFAR-The International Academic Forum, organized by The Asian Conference on Asian Studies (ACAS2022) on Topic, “Copper Workers and Their Technology-A Survey of Chotanagpur Region”, to be held in Japan, Tokyo from June 6th 2022 to June 9th 2022.
4. Paper accepted for presentation in International Conference IPPA Congress 22, organized by Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, on the Topic, “Survey of Typo-Technological Variations of Copper Artefacts in Chotanagpur Plateau” to be held in Thailand, Chang Mai from 7th Nov. 2022 to 12th Nov. 2022.
5. Presented Paper in an International Conference themed, “Minerals, Mining and Metallurgy in South Asia: Historical Perspectives” on the topic, ‘Copper Workings and Ritual Artefacts in the Chotanagpur Region: A Survey of Typological Variations’, organised by the Department of History, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur on 11th and 12th January 2024.
1. Presented Extended Lecture on ‘The Guptas and Golden Age’, in DAV Centenary College, Faridabad.
2. Presented talk at Amity University, Kolkata on “Environment: An Understanding through the Lens of Time”.
3. Presented Lecture as Resource Person in Faculty Development Programme, Annamalai University, on ‘Transacting Environmental Values’.
4. Presented talk as Resource Person in a Certificate Course organised by English Department, PGDAV College/ University of Delhi, on “Environmental Conservation in Popular Culture and Ancient Literature”.
1. Workshop for paper "Social Formations and Cultural Patterns of Ancient and Medieval World" (Co-Coordinator)